Personal Ethics Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Personal Ethics Development - Essay Example Ethics, on the other hand is how individuals behave in the face of difficult situations that often test the morality of an individual (Josephson Institute, 2009). Personal ethics are usually considered as the foundation of a person’s moral compass or a guide that tells on what is right or wrong, thus applying the moral judgment to decide on what to follow. Ethical principals are often influenced by several factors such as, influences from family, religious beliefs, and culture; thus it can be concluded that the principles of ethics are dynamic and subject to change in our day- to-day lives (Daft, Murphy & Willmott, 2010). My ethical principles were greatly influenced by various factors like the family members, religion, and culture, all of which shaped on my morality and instilled in me values that help in guiding my decision making process. Parents are the first people who instill morality into their children; thus the children can distinguish between right or wrong. Parents can enlighten their children on what is expected of them in the society, for example, when the parents inform their children that stealing is wrong and that the society require them not to steal, the foundation of the children’s ethics is built (Daft, Murphy & Willmott, 2010). ... Religion also played a immense role in shaping my ethical principles since religion allowed me to accept and follow an established set of moral guidelines which enabled me to behave ethically. Trevino and Nelson (2007) elaborates that religion often motivates people to do well in the presence life with promise of good life after death. The Christianity has set rules or commandments that guide people in the everyday life. These rules outline what is good or bad and thus Christians are encouraged to follow these commandments to the latter. Culture also played a role in development of ethics in my life because the traditions of the society became embedded in my psyche. The culture usually direct people in the everyday occurrences, for example, in a country where racism and gender discrimination is rampant people might embrace it because the society accepts its practice. As elaborated by Ferrell, Fraedrich, and Ferrell (2013), events that happen every day have had a role in shaping my et hics. Personal emotions causes a shift in the ethical beliefs in such a case as the murder of a loved one might say that the murderer should be issued death penalty even though is clear that death penalty is unethical in the society. Personal feelings also can be considered to have an impact on our ethical principles, for example, when one does something wrong and is against the ethical principles of society, one will tend to feel ashamed of the act while, on the other hand, doing something which is in line with our ethical system one tends to be happy thus these occurrences provide an immediate feedback that shapes the moral standards of an individual. In the workplace people are often required to make decisions that require the application of moral judgment to make right

‘Mirror’ & double-layered poem Essay Example for Free

‘Mirror’ double-layered poem Essay ‘Mirror’ is a double-layered poem: The mirror, personified and equipped with senses, sees and depicts its world in the most honest terms; then we see our own world from the mirror’s perspective—how raw and tormenting it is. Why the author chooses to personify a mirror as the poem’s narrator is firstly because it is an object most closely associated with a woman who seeks to see â€Å"what she really is† (11). When she is young, the mirror cheerfully reflects and praises her youthful beauty, letting her contemplate on her own appearance. When she is old, it cruelly reminds her of time’s meddling in her fading beauty and how life has passed and left her behind. Secondly, the mirror reflects the world just as it is—it cannot lie to us—and faithfully shows us all signs of aging, sorrow, pain and sickness that appear in our face. The theme of the poem is the effects of time reflected in the mirror, how it â€Å"has drowned a young girl† and makes a woman become â€Å"an old woman†. Adverbs depicting the motion of time are employed throughout the poem: â€Å"most of the time† (6), â€Å"so long† (7), â€Å"over and over† (9), â€Å"Now† (10), â€Å"Each morning† (16), â€Å"day after day† (18). The irony is deliberated in the difference between the mirror’s reflection and cognition of changes in the outside world. The woman who looks at the mirror is sad because her beauty and youthfulness are fading while her tears and agitation are considered â€Å"rewards† by the mirror. In the first stanza, the mirror simply tries to define its existence and introduce the reader to its world using its own language register. In the opening line, the mirror describes its appearance and unique quality, â€Å"I am silver and exact. I have no preconception. †(1). The word ‘swallow’ demonstrates Plath’s sensitivities and playfulness in her personification and imagery: everything is instantly reflected inside the mirror as if the mirror has devoured them. Next, mirror immediately explains its ‘non-discriminatory’ behaviours as being truthful rather than cruel. In the last four lines of stanza 1, the mirror honestly describes its bounded world. Ironically, even though the mirror reflects everything truthfully and exactly with no preconceptions or prejudice, it seems to live in self-created illusions, that the opposite wall is â€Å"a part of my heart†. Line 8 presents the mirror with human characteristics, not â€Å"the eye of a little god, four-cornered† as it describes itself. Nevertheless, its world constantly collides with the world outside it—our world: â€Å"it flickers. //Faces and darkness separate us over and over. † In the first stanza, the use of caesura in most of the sentences interrupts the flow of the poem but gives the mirror its own tone: emphatic and meditative. The enjambment between line 2 and 3 as well as between line 7 and 8 allow the mirror to reflect on itself naturally and coherently. In stanza 2, the mirror ironically creates another illusion, â€Å"Now I am a lake† (10), which is in contrast with its claim to be â€Å"only truthful†. It proudly demonstrates its usefulness in helping a woman to see â€Å"what she really is†. The images of the â€Å"candles† and â€Å"moon† (12) may symbolize fragility, inconstancy and instability which contrast with how faithfully it serves the woman (13). The connection between the mirror and the woman strengthens by day: it is important to her and she brightens its existence. Nevertheless, its unintended cruelty is shown in its being â€Å"only truthful† (4). The simile ‘like a terrible fish’ is consistent with the mirror’s illusion that it is a lake but it shows Plath’s grotesque and tormenting view of aging—as a destructive and dehumanizing process. The poem is structured as narrative prose poetry, with the use of caesura to create an emphatic tone, to present the mirror as a misunderstood, proud and honest object. The mirror exactly and dutifully reflects what appears before it and considers the changes shown in it others’ doing and completely out of its power: â€Å"she drowned a young girl, and in me an old woman//Rises toward her day after day† (17-18).

Minimising IT Project Management Failure

Minimising IT Project Management Failure 2.0 REVIEW OF EXISTING KNOWLEDGE The following sections will provide a critical review of the research work that had been undertaken. This information is relevant to the project and most importantly is associated with the project aims and objectives. A variety of sources were analysed in order to achieve a better understanding in some of the areas considered for this research project. 2.1 Project Management The fundamental aspect of this research is project management as it focuses on how IT project management failure can be minimised. There are numerous definitions of project management; one definition given by (The Project Management Institute, 2009) states; â€Å"The application of knowledge, skills, tools and technique to project activities to meet project requirements† According to (Lewis, 1995) however, project management is the planning, scheduling, and controlling of project activities to achieve project objectives. The first definition of project management focuses more on the soft skills of project management. The definition of soft skills given by the (Oxford Dictionary, 2010) is â€Å"Personal attributes that enable someone to interact effectively and  harmoniously with other people† In comparison to Lewis this is more specific to what actually is required. Although Lewiss description is not invalid, it gives a more generalised approach to project management highlighting the fundamental points. These two definitions contain different characteristics that are important to project management but what both of these definitions have in common is completion of the project requirements or activities. To generalise project management is to apply certain personnel management skills and the application of knowledge, planning and scheduling to achieve a desired objective. 2.2 Project Methodologies and Frameworks Yardley (2002) identifies it is overwhelming why many IT projects fail. Yardley (2002) states that if something was to fail and keep on failing then at some point there would be gradual improvements to why failure occurs so often in the particular area. Gradual improvements should have been made from the lessons learnt from the failure of IT projects over a period of time. However this has not been the case as there have been many failures in IT, with the same problems reoccurring. For example, common reasons for IT failure given by (Computer Weekly, 2010) are; Commencing work too early Ambiguous contracts Inadequate estimation of work Breaking the contract Lack of engagement Al-Ahmed et al (2009) suggests that the IT industry is still young compared to other industries such as manufacturing but still attributes failure to the project management methodologies. Therefore the IT industry is still yet to formulate the needed operational standards and procedures. However as the following sections will clarify, there are â€Å"guidelines, frameworks, rules, methods† in place to counter such argument. These will be identified and critically evaluated in the following. With all these clarification in place it is overwhelming to understand the amount of failure in IT as stated by (Yardley, 2002). 2.2.1 Managing a project Lewis (2007) in his book, Fundamentals of Project Management, gave a generalised approach to what a project contains. At each relevant step, questions are to be asked by a project manager for them to consider. Lewis gives a brief indication on these steps that are considered for managing a project as illustrated below in Fig.1 Figure 1 above illustrates a general approach to project management which consists of six main areas. The illustration identifies how the project is to be started up, planned, controlled and how the project is to close. On this basis of managing a project can seem simple enough however the accomplishment of each area is a different matter, hence the number of failures within IT. Al Neimat (2005) identifies the reason for failure is due to project management processes and the aligning of IT within the organisational structure. This view is also agreed by (Al-Ahmad et al.,2009) as project management discipline in most organisations are minimal they do not have the infrastructure to provide; education, training, or management disciplines in order to allow projects to achieve successful completion. Both these authors views are correct to some extent; this is because the project management processes are not followed exactly. For example, the reasons for failure as previously mentioned by (Computer Weekly, 2010) states project work is commenced too early and highlighting some do not plan the project effectively. Al-Ahmad et al (2009) view is correct to some degree. This is because some companies may not have sufficient resources to provide training and education in project management. However (Archbold, 2008) states that over the past ten years there had been a rise in interest in project management. Archbold (2008) states the reason for the rise in interest is because there are more projects then there were ten years ago. Archbold (2008) goes on to state organisations are becoming more successful and growing very quickly and recognising that staffs are managing projects without having the project manager title. 2.2.2 Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) The PMBOK guide provides the fundamental framework which is an industry standard to managing a project. Saladis and Kerzner (2009) state the real use of the PMBOK guide is to provide companies how to manage project irrespective of the characteristics. It provides the minimum knowledge that is required of a manager in order for the manager to be effective. Stackpole (2010) agrees that the PMBOK is a standard but also goes on to say it defines what is to be best practice on most of the project most of the time. The PMBOK guide is created from individuals who are affiliated with the Project Management Institute (PMI). The members of the PMI meet every few years to update and input their intellectual knowledge into the PMBOK Guide. There have been a number of guides produced over the years with the latest version in 2008. The following sections are a brief description of the two subject areas of PMBOK which are project processes and knowledge areas adapted from (The PMBOK Guide, 2008). This is to provide managers an overview and critical review of these areas; Project Processes There are five main processes to the PMBOK that are used to manage projects. In comparison to the general guideline mentioned in 2.2.1 the PMBOK covers five out of the six areas already identified; Initiating The initiating process is where the project is defined, project sponsor is on board, project manager, the team and the requirements are identified. Planning Times scales are drawn up, scope of the project is defined in detail, risks and resources are also identified. Executing The team executes the work that needs to be done in order to achieve its objectives. The project manager in this process co-ordinate the activities within the project, some of these include managing the resources and contractors. Monitoring and Controlling Monitoring the situation and analysing what stage it should be against the project plan. The controlling of the project is achieved by comparing what the project has achieved against what was outlined in the project plan. If it not according to plan then corrective actions is taken to bring it back to target if not going according to plan. Closing Ensure all objectives are met and stakeholders are happy with a review for lessons learnt for future projects. Knowledge Areas Project managers should also be familiar with the following knowledge areas to be considered as a professional. Each knowledge area contains a set of project management processes (Abdomerovic, 2008). Knowledge Areais aimed at promoting and sharing with some of the best scholarly literature material and available tools in the management, executive education, organizational behaviour and organizational psychology fields (Delegate Management Services, 2010). Project Integration Management Integration ensures that the project is planned properly, executed and controlled. The project manager must co-ordinate and integrates each activity in order to achieve the objectives of the project. Saladis and Kerzner (2009) agree with the definition given by (The PMBOK Guide, 2008) but also add the project manager must have overall vision of the project and must understand the technical as well as the human side of planning. Project Scope Management Schwalbe (2009) definition of project scope is to define in detail the scope or work required for the project, a view also shared by (Phillips, 2007; Nokes and Kelly, 2007). Phillips (2007) states the project manager and the project team must have clear vision of what is expected from the project. This is where one of the key components of project failure arises when people on the project team are not striving for the same goals, which includes the stakeholders of the project. However Phillips agrees with the PMBOK guide but also adds to create a scope, several inputs are required. The PMBOK Guide (2008) defines project scope management to include the processes required to ensure that the project includes all the work required, and only the work required, to complete the project successfully. Scope management as identified, only focuses on the output of the project and what is required to achieve the project deliverables. It does not have any concerns as to the time it takes to achieve the objectives or how much it costs (Phillips, 2007). For example, The National Insurance Recording System (NIRS2) was to be developed to replace the previous system in 1997. However one of the underlying problems was as the project commenced it became clear the system size and project scope was bigger and more complex than originally thought. This eventually led to the delay of the system at a cost of  £38 million (www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk, 2010). PMBOK identifies there to be 5 areas of project scope which are: collecting the requirements, defining the scope, creating a Work break-down structure (WBS), verifying the scope and control or monitoring the scope. WBS is the process of subdividing project deliverables and project work into smaller and more manageable tasks (The PMBOK Guide, 2008). Haugan (2002) gives a detailed explanation of WBS as follows; â€Å"A deliverable-orientated grouping of project elements that organises and defines the total work scope of the project. Each descending level represents an increasingly detailed definition of the project work† WBS allows the project manager to integrate each activity and prioritise certain tasks over others. An example of a WBS is given below in Fig. 2 Project Time Management A schedule is developed to achieve the objectives, estimating the time for each task, determining the critical path and then controlling the work actually does happen. There are a number of project management tools that could be used to manage time. OConchuir (2011) identifies the simplest form of time management would be to use Milestone List which illustrate when each stage is to be completed. OConchuir (2011) also identifies that The Gantt Chart to be a widely used tool to display the milestones in a visual format. Figure 3 illustrates a Gantt Chart. Marmel and Muir (2011) state the Gantt Chart was developed by Henry Gantt in 1910, however (Parviz and Anantatmula,2005; Schwalbe, 2009; www.ganttchartmac.com, 2011) state it was developed in 1917. Chiu (2010) does not specify a specific year, however states that it was developed during the First World War. Therefore it can be assumed it was produced in between the years of 1910 to 1918. The Gantt Chart is easy to understand, modify and is a simple way to depict progress status (Westcott, 2006). However as a planning tool, there are some notable limitations as described by (Springer, 2004). The limitations are that the chart is potentially subjective, interrelationships among the schedule activities are not depicted and no follow-on implications from schedule movement. Project Cost Management Schwalbe (2009) states project cost management includes the processes required to ensure that a project team completes a project within an approved budget. Schwalbe (2009) also states it is the project managers duty to satisfy stakeholders of the project as well as striving to reduce and control costs. It is here the costing of the project is calculated: this involves estimating the resources needed, staff and materials. As the project is conducted, costs are controlled and kept on track to make sure it is kept under or on budget. There have been many projects that have been completed but failed to meet the budget due to the project spiralling out of control. A notable IT project failure was the Wessex Regional Health Authoritys (WRHA) Regional Information Systems Plan (RSIP) in 1984. This project was an initiative to improve the provision of clinical and health services. It was to cost  £25.8 million and be completed in five years. However the project was not even completed and ab andoned with the eventual cost rising to  £43 million. The reason for this high increase was because of overspending, high cost of implementation and lack of funds (Chua, 2009). Project Quality Management Saladis and Kerzner (2009) identifies the main objective of quality management is customer satisfaction. However (Stackpole, 2010) states quality management is applied to the project and product. Although in essence both these authors are correct, as providing quality throughout the project and the products will provide customer satisfaction. Schwalbe (2009) argues project quality management is a difficult knowledge area to define. This is because there are many definitions to quality management and the definitions are still vague. Schwalbe (2009) also identifies some that experts base quality on â€Å"Conformance to requirements† which means project processes and products meeting written specification. In relation to these views of the authors (The PMBOK Guide, 2008) defines project quality management as the degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfil requirements. Below Fig. 4 is the PMBOK guides quality management process. The PMBOK Guide (2008) identifies managers have to grasp three aspects of quality management which includes processes and activities as shown in Fig. 4; 1) Plan Quality Schwalbe (2009) states in the planning aspect of quality it involves identifying the standards that are relevant to the projects and how to satisfy these standards. Saladis and Kerzner (2009) agrees and identifies a few standards that can be used; ISO 9000/2000: The International Organisation of Standardisation (IOS) this is to provide a framework around which a quality management system can effectively be implemented www.bsi-emea.com, 2011. Saladis and Kerzner (2009) agree and explain adhering to the processes approved by the IOS will produce a consistent output. Six Sigma: Pyzdek and Keller (2009) define six sigma as a rigorous, focused, highly effective implementation of proven quality principles and techniques. Its aim is to have virtually error-free business performance. Saladis and Kerzner (2009) state the methodology for meeting these performance levels is to follow a procedure referred to as DMAIC: define, measure, analyse, improve, control. Total Quality Management (TQM): a comprehensive and integrated way of managing any organisation to meet the needs of customers consistently and continuous improvement in every aspect of the organisations activities (Evans et al.,1996). It is an approach where everyone is responsible for quality. It is designed to enable an organisation to gain competitive advantage by striving to meet 100% customer satisfaction (Yardley, 2002) 2) Perform Quality Assurance The PMBOK Guide (2008) defines quality assurance as the process of regularly evaluating the overall performance of the project to ensure the project will satisfy quality standards. Francis and Horine (2003) agree and explain quality assurance involves making sure everything is done correctly and fulfils the requirements of the project. 3) Perform Quality Control Monitoring and recording the results to see if they meet the requirements (The PMBOK Guide, 2008). This is to be achieved by statistical process control and Pareto analysis as stated by (Barkley and Saylor, 2001) and identify that this an important factor of quality even though these tools are inspection based. For example in 1992 BAE Automated System was awarded a $175.6 million contract by the city of Denver to build an airport with an integrated baggage handling system for the new Denver International Airport (DIA). This system was supposed to route and deliver luggage in the airport using unmanned carts. However it was a catastrophic failure due to the following reasons as stated by (Chua, 2009); One of the reasons for failure was the sheer expanse of the DIA it was twice the size of Manhattan, New York. Overly ambitious, as it was asked to be built in one year, but was estimated to take four years. No experience of dealing with such a large project, Conflicts with contractors, Poor management of user expectation, Continuous changes. Eventual cost was close to $2 billion over budget and sixteen months behind schedule. This example stipulates the importance of having quality aspects imbedded into the project. The project should have followed some quality guidelines such as TQM where this approach identifies everyone responsible for the quality. Project Human Resource Management Identifying the personnel needed to do the job by giving their roles and responsibilities within the team, managing and motivating that team. Also the identification of key stakeholders within the project is made here. Project Communications Management Communication is vital to any project; (The PMBOK Guide, 2008) acknowledges that the communication knowledge area involves planning and disseminating information relevant to the project. Project Risk Management Kerzner (2009) defines risk management as the act or practise of dealing with risk. This includes planning for risk, identifying potential project risk, analysing and prioritising risk, developing risk response strategies and monitoring and controlling risks to determine how they have changed. Dinsmore et al (2010) agrees and makes a valid point identifying that all projects will have a certain element of risk. This is because no two projects are the same as some are characterized by the following: Uniqueness, Complexity, Change, Assumptions, Constraints, Dependencies and most importantly People. Project Procurement Management Determining which goods and services are necessary for the project and how they are to be acquired. The PMBOK provides a great platform for understand how to manage a project. The PMBOK is a framework that covers proven techniques and practices given by existing project managers. The framework is used in major organisation such as Fujitsu and Boeing Aircraft (Blokdijk, 2008). It is more associated as knowledge based framework as it identifies â€Å"What† the project might require rather than â€Å"How† to manage a project. It does not show in great detail exactly how to go about managing a project which is why it is mentioned also as a framework and more as a guideline. The reason for identifying the method as knowledge based is because every few years PMI meet to update and input their intellectual knowledge. This can be an advantage as members input the knowledge of successful proven practices needed to manage the life-cycle of a project. For each process it outlines which necessary tools and techniques are needed. The PMBOK however has its disadvantages; PMBOK poin ts out human resource management as important but fails to miss out the need to document the processes. The reason why it is a disadvantage is because by not documenting the process, it fails to provide information for anyone else to come into the project at a later date, or when re-evaluating the project at the end why such action was taken or needs to be taken. Another disadvantage is it provides minimal amount of coverage of various project management techniques such as WBS or Gantt Chart. Managers would therefore need to consult specialised texts to grasp the subject further. It is also complex for smaller projects and has to be adapted specifically to the industry area (www.theprojectmanagement.com, 2008). 2.2.3 PRINCE2 Methodology Hedeman et al (2010) identifies PRINCE2 as an acronym for PRoject IN Controlled Environments and is a structured method for managing projects. Hedeman et al (2010) also states that PRINCE2 is a de facto standard that is used by the United Kingdom (UK) Government and is widely recognised in the private sector. Van Bon and Verheijen (2006) also agree the PRINCE2 methodology as a de facto standard in the UK and widely used in the Netherlands and Australia. Lock (2007) identifies that the PRINCE2 methodology was at first intended for use on IT projects, however it has since emerged to be effective in any given project. PRINCE2 is a set of activities to achieve its business product with the organisation structure defining responsibilities to manage the project. PRINCE was established and launched in 1989 and was based on an earlier model called PROMPT; PRINCE took over from PROMT within Government projects. PRINCE2 was published in 1996 and is the trade mark of the Office of Government Commerce (OGC) PRINCE2 Process Model In the following section is a brief overview of the process model which has been summarised from the (Managing Successful Project with PRINCE2, Office of Government Commerce, 2002) The PRINCE2 Process model consists of a number of distinctive management processes. Graham (2010) states most people fall into the trap of following this model exactly as a standard approach. It is therefore in the best interest of the project manager not to blindly follow the exact approach stated in the model. Depending on the experience of the project manager and what the project needs elements of the model can be taken and applied to a particular project. Figure 5 shows the different levels of management; Directing a Project (DP) DP is aimed at the Project Board: the board manage and monitor the projects by reports and controls through a number of decision points. Key decision points are initiating the project on the right track, commitment of more resources after checking results and project closure. This process does not cover the day to day activities of the project manager. Starting up a Project (SU) A pre-project process designed to ensure the basic elements are in place. In this process the project team is assembled and a project brief is prepared. This process also brings out the Project Mandate which defines the reason for the project and what the outcome is to be. Initiating a Project (IP) The team decides whether it is feasible for them to proceed with the project and if feasible then a business Case is produced. Other key activities here are setting up project files, encouraging the Project Board to take ownership of the project, assembling the Project Initiation Document (PID), ensuring the investment and time required is considered wisely. Portman (2009) identifies different steps to this process in comparison to (Managing Successful Project with PRINCE2, Office of Government Commerce, 2002). Portman (2009) focuses more on the people aspect as it states that all parties are to be aware of the product that is to be delivered, at what time, and quality aspects. Also management and responsibilities are made clear. Both these texts identify valid points which will enable a project manager to clarify what is to happen at this stage. But raises questions as to why the people aspects are not covered or examples given as it only states a large portion of documentation in the Managing Successful Project with PRINCE2. It gives indication that theory and actual practise is different. Controlling a Stage (CS) The Project Manager monitors and controls the day to day activities and forms the core role of the Project Manager. Other key activities include authorising, gathering progress information, reviewing stages and reporting. Managing Product Delivery (MP) Ensure planned products are created and delivered by the project. The process makes sure that the work is being done, ensuring that products meet quality criterias set. It makes sure that the work on products allocated to the team is effectively authorised and agreed. Other key activities include assessing work progress and forecasts regularly, obtaining approval for the completed products. Managing Stage Boundaries (SB) This process dictates what should be done towards the end of the stage. The objectives for this process are to assure the Project Board that all deliverables have been completed for the current stage plan, provide information for the Project Board to asses on whether to continue with the project or not, provide enough information to approve the current stage and authorise the start of the next stage and record any lessons to be learned for later projects. Closing the Project (CP) Portman (2009) states this process are the activities required to close the project and release the project manager. The project could either be the actual project end or a premature end. Objectives here are to check to see if the PID objectives or aim have been met, confirm acceptance of the product, and make recommendation for future work. Resources are freed up for allocation to other activities and prepare end project report. Planning (PL) Planning is a repeatable process and plays an important role in other processes. A few are mentioned below: Planning for an Initiation Stage Planning for a Project Planning a Stage Producing an Exception Plan As previously stated PRINCE2 is the de facto standard for the UK Government and the reason for this is the attention to detail, documentation, business justification and emphasis on dividing the project into manageable and controllable stages (www.prince2.com, 2011). There are many documentation points which enable everyone to know what has happened and how they can improve for the future. Although this methodology may be unsuitable for smaller projects, elements of this methodology can be taken out such as area of control (Bentley, 2005) and implemented into managing a project. However, the question is that if this is such a widely used methodology and is the de facto standard used by the Government, then why are IT projects still failing? And why do IT projects really fail or is it just a widely used perception of IT always failing? These are some of the questions which are going to be explored as the literature review is conducted. Analysing PRINCE2, it is evident why managers and the UK Government use this methodology. This is because it allows the manager to build on experience and the manager to be proactive and not reactive (Harris, 2010). It ensures the project process is viable to senior management (Yardley, 2002). By identifying early warning signs of potential problems and allowing proactive measures to be taken to help alleviate them. The advantages and disadvantages are identified in Table 2. The key point to consider is some project managers fail to differentiate that this is a methodology and does not need to be followed exactly to each and every point, process or technique. Project managers become too inflexible and fixed on the idea that they have to follow each and every step which can make the project long and with unnecessary processes (Charvat, 2003). Another key point regarding PRINCE2 in comparison to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) is the PRINCE2 misses the importance of th e need of soft skills (Charvat, 2003). PRINCE2 also misses out on areas such as human resources, leadership and management techniques, health and safety. This is different to the PMBOK which focuses on soft skills such as people management. There are numerous benefits for using a structured approach to managing a project. Below are the advantages and disadvantages given by (Office of Government Commerce (OGC), 2002) are; 2.2.4 Waterfall Methodology The waterfall method was developed by Winston W. Royce in the 1970 and is considered to be a traditional approach. This was one of the first formal approaches for information system analysis and design as stated by (Johns, 2002; Carkenord, 2009). The method is a process followed in a sequence where a task is completed before moving on to the next in a sequential manner. Figure 6 shows the waterfall methodology, (Rainardi, 2007) illustrates the approach of the waterfall when one task is completed after another. The advantages and disadvantages to the waterfall methodology according to Charvat (2003) are illustrated in Table 3 Although this is for a software development or information system methodology, the same approach can be applied to a project in completing one section and then moving on to the other. The waterfall however does not always reflect on how a project is undertaken and is rarely done in such a sequential manner. However as (Charvat, 2003) identifies, it does produce a phase by phase checkpoint. This will allow the project to stay on the right track in meeting its objectives. 2.2.5 Structured Systems Analysis and Design Method (SSADM) SSADM is a structured approach into the analysis and design of developing an Minimising IT Project Management Failure Minimising IT Project Management Failure 2.0 REVIEW OF EXISTING KNOWLEDGE The following sections will provide a critical review of the research work that had been undertaken. This information is relevant to the project and most importantly is associated with the project aims and objectives. A variety of sources were analysed in order to achieve a better understanding in some of the areas considered for this research project. 2.1 Project Management The fundamental aspect of this research is project management as it focuses on how IT project management failure can be minimised. There are numerous definitions of project management; one definition given by (The Project Management Institute, 2009) states; â€Å"The application of knowledge, skills, tools and technique to project activities to meet project requirements† According to (Lewis, 1995) however, project management is the planning, scheduling, and controlling of project activities to achieve project objectives. The first definition of project management focuses more on the soft skills of project management. The definition of soft skills given by the (Oxford Dictionary, 2010) is â€Å"Personal attributes that enable someone to interact effectively and  harmoniously with other people† In comparison to Lewis this is more specific to what actually is required. Although Lewiss description is not invalid, it gives a more generalised approach to project management highlighting the fundamental points. These two definitions contain different characteristics that are important to project management but what both of these definitions have in common is completion of the project requirements or activities. To generalise project management is to apply certain personnel management skills and the application of knowledge, planning and scheduling to achieve a desired objective. 2.2 Project Methodologies and Frameworks Yardley (2002) identifies it is overwhelming why many IT projects fail. Yardley (2002) states that if something was to fail and keep on failing then at some point there would be gradual improvements to why failure occurs so often in the particular area. Gradual improvements should have been made from the lessons learnt from the failure of IT projects over a period of time. However this has not been the case as there have been many failures in IT, with the same problems reoccurring. For example, common reasons for IT failure given by (Computer Weekly, 2010) are; Commencing work too early Ambiguous contracts Inadequate estimation of work Breaking the contract Lack of engagement Al-Ahmed et al (2009) suggests that the IT industry is still young compared to other industries such as manufacturing but still attributes failure to the project management methodologies. Therefore the IT industry is still yet to formulate the needed operational standards and procedures. However as the following sections will clarify, there are â€Å"guidelines, frameworks, rules, methods† in place to counter such argument. These will be identified and critically evaluated in the following. With all these clarification in place it is overwhelming to understand the amount of failure in IT as stated by (Yardley, 2002). 2.2.1 Managing a project Lewis (2007) in his book, Fundamentals of Project Management, gave a generalised approach to what a project contains. At each relevant step, questions are to be asked by a project manager for them to consider. Lewis gives a brief indication on these steps that are considered for managing a project as illustrated below in Fig.1 Figure 1 above illustrates a general approach to project management which consists of six main areas. The illustration identifies how the project is to be started up, planned, controlled and how the project is to close. On this basis of managing a project can seem simple enough however the accomplishment of each area is a different matter, hence the number of failures within IT. Al Neimat (2005) identifies the reason for failure is due to project management processes and the aligning of IT within the organisational structure. This view is also agreed by (Al-Ahmad et al.,2009) as project management discipline in most organisations are minimal they do not have the infrastructure to provide; education, training, or management disciplines in order to allow projects to achieve successful completion. Both these authors views are correct to some extent; this is because the project management processes are not followed exactly. For example, the reasons for failure as previously mentioned by (Computer Weekly, 2010) states project work is commenced too early and highlighting some do not plan the project effectively. Al-Ahmad et al (2009) view is correct to some degree. This is because some companies may not have sufficient resources to provide training and education in project management. However (Archbold, 2008) states that over the past ten years there had been a rise in interest in project management. Archbold (2008) states the reason for the rise in interest is because there are more projects then there were ten years ago. Archbold (2008) goes on to state organisations are becoming more successful and growing very quickly and recognising that staffs are managing projects without having the project manager title. 2.2.2 Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) The PMBOK guide provides the fundamental framework which is an industry standard to managing a project. Saladis and Kerzner (2009) state the real use of the PMBOK guide is to provide companies how to manage project irrespective of the characteristics. It provides the minimum knowledge that is required of a manager in order for the manager to be effective. Stackpole (2010) agrees that the PMBOK is a standard but also goes on to say it defines what is to be best practice on most of the project most of the time. The PMBOK guide is created from individuals who are affiliated with the Project Management Institute (PMI). The members of the PMI meet every few years to update and input their intellectual knowledge into the PMBOK Guide. There have been a number of guides produced over the years with the latest version in 2008. The following sections are a brief description of the two subject areas of PMBOK which are project processes and knowledge areas adapted from (The PMBOK Guide, 2008). This is to provide managers an overview and critical review of these areas; Project Processes There are five main processes to the PMBOK that are used to manage projects. In comparison to the general guideline mentioned in 2.2.1 the PMBOK covers five out of the six areas already identified; Initiating The initiating process is where the project is defined, project sponsor is on board, project manager, the team and the requirements are identified. Planning Times scales are drawn up, scope of the project is defined in detail, risks and resources are also identified. Executing The team executes the work that needs to be done in order to achieve its objectives. The project manager in this process co-ordinate the activities within the project, some of these include managing the resources and contractors. Monitoring and Controlling Monitoring the situation and analysing what stage it should be against the project plan. The controlling of the project is achieved by comparing what the project has achieved against what was outlined in the project plan. If it not according to plan then corrective actions is taken to bring it back to target if not going according to plan. Closing Ensure all objectives are met and stakeholders are happy with a review for lessons learnt for future projects. Knowledge Areas Project managers should also be familiar with the following knowledge areas to be considered as a professional. Each knowledge area contains a set of project management processes (Abdomerovic, 2008). Knowledge Areais aimed at promoting and sharing with some of the best scholarly literature material and available tools in the management, executive education, organizational behaviour and organizational psychology fields (Delegate Management Services, 2010). Project Integration Management Integration ensures that the project is planned properly, executed and controlled. The project manager must co-ordinate and integrates each activity in order to achieve the objectives of the project. Saladis and Kerzner (2009) agree with the definition given by (The PMBOK Guide, 2008) but also add the project manager must have overall vision of the project and must understand the technical as well as the human side of planning. Project Scope Management Schwalbe (2009) definition of project scope is to define in detail the scope or work required for the project, a view also shared by (Phillips, 2007; Nokes and Kelly, 2007). Phillips (2007) states the project manager and the project team must have clear vision of what is expected from the project. This is where one of the key components of project failure arises when people on the project team are not striving for the same goals, which includes the stakeholders of the project. However Phillips agrees with the PMBOK guide but also adds to create a scope, several inputs are required. The PMBOK Guide (2008) defines project scope management to include the processes required to ensure that the project includes all the work required, and only the work required, to complete the project successfully. Scope management as identified, only focuses on the output of the project and what is required to achieve the project deliverables. It does not have any concerns as to the time it takes to achieve the objectives or how much it costs (Phillips, 2007). For example, The National Insurance Recording System (NIRS2) was to be developed to replace the previous system in 1997. However one of the underlying problems was as the project commenced it became clear the system size and project scope was bigger and more complex than originally thought. This eventually led to the delay of the system at a cost of  £38 million (www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk, 2010). PMBOK identifies there to be 5 areas of project scope which are: collecting the requirements, defining the scope, creating a Work break-down structure (WBS), verifying the scope and control or monitoring the scope. WBS is the process of subdividing project deliverables and project work into smaller and more manageable tasks (The PMBOK Guide, 2008). Haugan (2002) gives a detailed explanation of WBS as follows; â€Å"A deliverable-orientated grouping of project elements that organises and defines the total work scope of the project. Each descending level represents an increasingly detailed definition of the project work† WBS allows the project manager to integrate each activity and prioritise certain tasks over others. An example of a WBS is given below in Fig. 2 Project Time Management A schedule is developed to achieve the objectives, estimating the time for each task, determining the critical path and then controlling the work actually does happen. There are a number of project management tools that could be used to manage time. OConchuir (2011) identifies the simplest form of time management would be to use Milestone List which illustrate when each stage is to be completed. OConchuir (2011) also identifies that The Gantt Chart to be a widely used tool to display the milestones in a visual format. Figure 3 illustrates a Gantt Chart. Marmel and Muir (2011) state the Gantt Chart was developed by Henry Gantt in 1910, however (Parviz and Anantatmula,2005; Schwalbe, 2009; www.ganttchartmac.com, 2011) state it was developed in 1917. Chiu (2010) does not specify a specific year, however states that it was developed during the First World War. Therefore it can be assumed it was produced in between the years of 1910 to 1918. The Gantt Chart is easy to understand, modify and is a simple way to depict progress status (Westcott, 2006). However as a planning tool, there are some notable limitations as described by (Springer, 2004). The limitations are that the chart is potentially subjective, interrelationships among the schedule activities are not depicted and no follow-on implications from schedule movement. Project Cost Management Schwalbe (2009) states project cost management includes the processes required to ensure that a project team completes a project within an approved budget. Schwalbe (2009) also states it is the project managers duty to satisfy stakeholders of the project as well as striving to reduce and control costs. It is here the costing of the project is calculated: this involves estimating the resources needed, staff and materials. As the project is conducted, costs are controlled and kept on track to make sure it is kept under or on budget. There have been many projects that have been completed but failed to meet the budget due to the project spiralling out of control. A notable IT project failure was the Wessex Regional Health Authoritys (WRHA) Regional Information Systems Plan (RSIP) in 1984. This project was an initiative to improve the provision of clinical and health services. It was to cost  £25.8 million and be completed in five years. However the project was not even completed and ab andoned with the eventual cost rising to  £43 million. The reason for this high increase was because of overspending, high cost of implementation and lack of funds (Chua, 2009). Project Quality Management Saladis and Kerzner (2009) identifies the main objective of quality management is customer satisfaction. However (Stackpole, 2010) states quality management is applied to the project and product. Although in essence both these authors are correct, as providing quality throughout the project and the products will provide customer satisfaction. Schwalbe (2009) argues project quality management is a difficult knowledge area to define. This is because there are many definitions to quality management and the definitions are still vague. Schwalbe (2009) also identifies some that experts base quality on â€Å"Conformance to requirements† which means project processes and products meeting written specification. In relation to these views of the authors (The PMBOK Guide, 2008) defines project quality management as the degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfil requirements. Below Fig. 4 is the PMBOK guides quality management process. The PMBOK Guide (2008) identifies managers have to grasp three aspects of quality management which includes processes and activities as shown in Fig. 4; 1) Plan Quality Schwalbe (2009) states in the planning aspect of quality it involves identifying the standards that are relevant to the projects and how to satisfy these standards. Saladis and Kerzner (2009) agrees and identifies a few standards that can be used; ISO 9000/2000: The International Organisation of Standardisation (IOS) this is to provide a framework around which a quality management system can effectively be implemented www.bsi-emea.com, 2011. Saladis and Kerzner (2009) agree and explain adhering to the processes approved by the IOS will produce a consistent output. Six Sigma: Pyzdek and Keller (2009) define six sigma as a rigorous, focused, highly effective implementation of proven quality principles and techniques. Its aim is to have virtually error-free business performance. Saladis and Kerzner (2009) state the methodology for meeting these performance levels is to follow a procedure referred to as DMAIC: define, measure, analyse, improve, control. Total Quality Management (TQM): a comprehensive and integrated way of managing any organisation to meet the needs of customers consistently and continuous improvement in every aspect of the organisations activities (Evans et al.,1996). It is an approach where everyone is responsible for quality. It is designed to enable an organisation to gain competitive advantage by striving to meet 100% customer satisfaction (Yardley, 2002) 2) Perform Quality Assurance The PMBOK Guide (2008) defines quality assurance as the process of regularly evaluating the overall performance of the project to ensure the project will satisfy quality standards. Francis and Horine (2003) agree and explain quality assurance involves making sure everything is done correctly and fulfils the requirements of the project. 3) Perform Quality Control Monitoring and recording the results to see if they meet the requirements (The PMBOK Guide, 2008). This is to be achieved by statistical process control and Pareto analysis as stated by (Barkley and Saylor, 2001) and identify that this an important factor of quality even though these tools are inspection based. For example in 1992 BAE Automated System was awarded a $175.6 million contract by the city of Denver to build an airport with an integrated baggage handling system for the new Denver International Airport (DIA). This system was supposed to route and deliver luggage in the airport using unmanned carts. However it was a catastrophic failure due to the following reasons as stated by (Chua, 2009); One of the reasons for failure was the sheer expanse of the DIA it was twice the size of Manhattan, New York. Overly ambitious, as it was asked to be built in one year, but was estimated to take four years. No experience of dealing with such a large project, Conflicts with contractors, Poor management of user expectation, Continuous changes. Eventual cost was close to $2 billion over budget and sixteen months behind schedule. This example stipulates the importance of having quality aspects imbedded into the project. The project should have followed some quality guidelines such as TQM where this approach identifies everyone responsible for the quality. Project Human Resource Management Identifying the personnel needed to do the job by giving their roles and responsibilities within the team, managing and motivating that team. Also the identification of key stakeholders within the project is made here. Project Communications Management Communication is vital to any project; (The PMBOK Guide, 2008) acknowledges that the communication knowledge area involves planning and disseminating information relevant to the project. Project Risk Management Kerzner (2009) defines risk management as the act or practise of dealing with risk. This includes planning for risk, identifying potential project risk, analysing and prioritising risk, developing risk response strategies and monitoring and controlling risks to determine how they have changed. Dinsmore et al (2010) agrees and makes a valid point identifying that all projects will have a certain element of risk. This is because no two projects are the same as some are characterized by the following: Uniqueness, Complexity, Change, Assumptions, Constraints, Dependencies and most importantly People. Project Procurement Management Determining which goods and services are necessary for the project and how they are to be acquired. The PMBOK provides a great platform for understand how to manage a project. The PMBOK is a framework that covers proven techniques and practices given by existing project managers. The framework is used in major organisation such as Fujitsu and Boeing Aircraft (Blokdijk, 2008). It is more associated as knowledge based framework as it identifies â€Å"What† the project might require rather than â€Å"How† to manage a project. It does not show in great detail exactly how to go about managing a project which is why it is mentioned also as a framework and more as a guideline. The reason for identifying the method as knowledge based is because every few years PMI meet to update and input their intellectual knowledge. This can be an advantage as members input the knowledge of successful proven practices needed to manage the life-cycle of a project. For each process it outlines which necessary tools and techniques are needed. The PMBOK however has its disadvantages; PMBOK poin ts out human resource management as important but fails to miss out the need to document the processes. The reason why it is a disadvantage is because by not documenting the process, it fails to provide information for anyone else to come into the project at a later date, or when re-evaluating the project at the end why such action was taken or needs to be taken. Another disadvantage is it provides minimal amount of coverage of various project management techniques such as WBS or Gantt Chart. Managers would therefore need to consult specialised texts to grasp the subject further. It is also complex for smaller projects and has to be adapted specifically to the industry area (www.theprojectmanagement.com, 2008). 2.2.3 PRINCE2 Methodology Hedeman et al (2010) identifies PRINCE2 as an acronym for PRoject IN Controlled Environments and is a structured method for managing projects. Hedeman et al (2010) also states that PRINCE2 is a de facto standard that is used by the United Kingdom (UK) Government and is widely recognised in the private sector. Van Bon and Verheijen (2006) also agree the PRINCE2 methodology as a de facto standard in the UK and widely used in the Netherlands and Australia. Lock (2007) identifies that the PRINCE2 methodology was at first intended for use on IT projects, however it has since emerged to be effective in any given project. PRINCE2 is a set of activities to achieve its business product with the organisation structure defining responsibilities to manage the project. PRINCE was established and launched in 1989 and was based on an earlier model called PROMPT; PRINCE took over from PROMT within Government projects. PRINCE2 was published in 1996 and is the trade mark of the Office of Government Commerce (OGC) PRINCE2 Process Model In the following section is a brief overview of the process model which has been summarised from the (Managing Successful Project with PRINCE2, Office of Government Commerce, 2002) The PRINCE2 Process model consists of a number of distinctive management processes. Graham (2010) states most people fall into the trap of following this model exactly as a standard approach. It is therefore in the best interest of the project manager not to blindly follow the exact approach stated in the model. Depending on the experience of the project manager and what the project needs elements of the model can be taken and applied to a particular project. Figure 5 shows the different levels of management; Directing a Project (DP) DP is aimed at the Project Board: the board manage and monitor the projects by reports and controls through a number of decision points. Key decision points are initiating the project on the right track, commitment of more resources after checking results and project closure. This process does not cover the day to day activities of the project manager. Starting up a Project (SU) A pre-project process designed to ensure the basic elements are in place. In this process the project team is assembled and a project brief is prepared. This process also brings out the Project Mandate which defines the reason for the project and what the outcome is to be. Initiating a Project (IP) The team decides whether it is feasible for them to proceed with the project and if feasible then a business Case is produced. Other key activities here are setting up project files, encouraging the Project Board to take ownership of the project, assembling the Project Initiation Document (PID), ensuring the investment and time required is considered wisely. Portman (2009) identifies different steps to this process in comparison to (Managing Successful Project with PRINCE2, Office of Government Commerce, 2002). Portman (2009) focuses more on the people aspect as it states that all parties are to be aware of the product that is to be delivered, at what time, and quality aspects. Also management and responsibilities are made clear. Both these texts identify valid points which will enable a project manager to clarify what is to happen at this stage. But raises questions as to why the people aspects are not covered or examples given as it only states a large portion of documentation in the Managing Successful Project with PRINCE2. It gives indication that theory and actual practise is different. Controlling a Stage (CS) The Project Manager monitors and controls the day to day activities and forms the core role of the Project Manager. Other key activities include authorising, gathering progress information, reviewing stages and reporting. Managing Product Delivery (MP) Ensure planned products are created and delivered by the project. The process makes sure that the work is being done, ensuring that products meet quality criterias set. It makes sure that the work on products allocated to the team is effectively authorised and agreed. Other key activities include assessing work progress and forecasts regularly, obtaining approval for the completed products. Managing Stage Boundaries (SB) This process dictates what should be done towards the end of the stage. The objectives for this process are to assure the Project Board that all deliverables have been completed for the current stage plan, provide information for the Project Board to asses on whether to continue with the project or not, provide enough information to approve the current stage and authorise the start of the next stage and record any lessons to be learned for later projects. Closing the Project (CP) Portman (2009) states this process are the activities required to close the project and release the project manager. The project could either be the actual project end or a premature end. Objectives here are to check to see if the PID objectives or aim have been met, confirm acceptance of the product, and make recommendation for future work. Resources are freed up for allocation to other activities and prepare end project report. Planning (PL) Planning is a repeatable process and plays an important role in other processes. A few are mentioned below: Planning for an Initiation Stage Planning for a Project Planning a Stage Producing an Exception Plan As previously stated PRINCE2 is the de facto standard for the UK Government and the reason for this is the attention to detail, documentation, business justification and emphasis on dividing the project into manageable and controllable stages (www.prince2.com, 2011). There are many documentation points which enable everyone to know what has happened and how they can improve for the future. Although this methodology may be unsuitable for smaller projects, elements of this methodology can be taken out such as area of control (Bentley, 2005) and implemented into managing a project. However, the question is that if this is such a widely used methodology and is the de facto standard used by the Government, then why are IT projects still failing? And why do IT projects really fail or is it just a widely used perception of IT always failing? These are some of the questions which are going to be explored as the literature review is conducted. Analysing PRINCE2, it is evident why managers and the UK Government use this methodology. This is because it allows the manager to build on experience and the manager to be proactive and not reactive (Harris, 2010). It ensures the project process is viable to senior management (Yardley, 2002). By identifying early warning signs of potential problems and allowing proactive measures to be taken to help alleviate them. The advantages and disadvantages are identified in Table 2. The key point to consider is some project managers fail to differentiate that this is a methodology and does not need to be followed exactly to each and every point, process or technique. Project managers become too inflexible and fixed on the idea that they have to follow each and every step which can make the project long and with unnecessary processes (Charvat, 2003). Another key point regarding PRINCE2 in comparison to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) is the PRINCE2 misses the importance of th e need of soft skills (Charvat, 2003). PRINCE2 also misses out on areas such as human resources, leadership and management techniques, health and safety. This is different to the PMBOK which focuses on soft skills such as people management. There are numerous benefits for using a structured approach to managing a project. Below are the advantages and disadvantages given by (Office of Government Commerce (OGC), 2002) are; 2.2.4 Waterfall Methodology The waterfall method was developed by Winston W. Royce in the 1970 and is considered to be a traditional approach. This was one of the first formal approaches for information system analysis and design as stated by (Johns, 2002; Carkenord, 2009). The method is a process followed in a sequence where a task is completed before moving on to the next in a sequential manner. Figure 6 shows the waterfall methodology, (Rainardi, 2007) illustrates the approach of the waterfall when one task is completed after another. The advantages and disadvantages to the waterfall methodology according to Charvat (2003) are illustrated in Table 3 Although this is for a software development or information system methodology, the same approach can be applied to a project in completing one section and then moving on to the other. The waterfall however does not always reflect on how a project is undertaken and is rarely done in such a sequential manner. However as (Charvat, 2003) identifies, it does produce a phase by phase checkpoint. This will allow the project to stay on the right track in meeting its objectives. 2.2.5 Structured Systems Analysis and Design Method (SSADM) SSADM is a structured approach into the analysis and design of developing an

Helen Keller Essay -- Helen Keller Blind Mute Death Essays Bio

Helen Keller Imagine a life without being able to see or hear and not knowing how to communicate with anyone around you. That world of darkness is what Helen Keller lived in for six years. Helen Keller has been an inspiration to people ever since she turned six. From 1886-1960, she proved herself to be a creative and inspiring woman of America. She was a writer and lecturer who fought for the rights of disadvantaged people all over the world. Most importantly, she overcame her two most difficult obstacles, being blind and deaf. Helen Keller devoted her life to improving the education and treatment of the blind, deaf, and mute and fighting for minorities as well. Miss Keller was one of the first to educate the public and make them aware of inflicted individuals' potential. Because of her persistence and strength, she is considered a creative and unique spirit by many people of the world, especially those who can relate to her physical impairments. Helen Keller was born a healthy child. When Helen was 19 months old, she became ill with what was known as acute congestion of the brain and stomach; this is now known as scarlet fever. As a result, she was left blind, deaf, and mute. For many of her earlier years Helen lived in darkness with very few ways to communicate with others around her. Obviously her attempts were not always successful. When she failed to communicate she would throw fits and have outburst that would upset not only her, but her family as well. Because of these violent fits, she appeared to be a very unruly child, but underneath all of the tragedy was a future inspirational figure that would surprise the world with amazing and countless abilities. A large amount of Helen's accomplishments would not have been possible if it weren't for her mother and father. Her parents read about Samuel Gridley Howe's accomplishments with the deaf and blind at the Perkins Institution in Boston. With this knowledge, her father brought his daughter to Alexander Graham Bell, a family friend who was well known in society. Bell was so fascinated by six year old Helen that he recommended that she contact the Perkins Institute for the Blind in Boston. Anne Sullivan, who was also a recent Perkins graduate, was suggested to be Helen's teacher by Michael Anagnos. Michael Anagnos was the professor of Samuel Gridley Howe, a gentleman who ... ...ce movement before World War I. Many agencies and institutions have been named after Helen Keller as well. Helen Keller International was set-up to fight blindness in the world. Currently, Helen Keller International is one of the biggest organizations that works with the blind overseas ("The Life" 3). In 1986, the Industrial Home for the Blind was renamed to Helen Keller Services for the Blind. This agency provides special services for the blind in New York. Because of her attempts and struggles, the blind now have better care, training, and employment. "I am a beneficiary of her work. Because of her example, the world has given way a little," says David Jackson, a blind jazz singer (Shuur 2). Works Cited Ashby, Ruth, and Deborah Gore Orhn. Herstory. New York: The Penguin Group, 1995. Briggs, ASA. A Dictionary of 20th Century World Biographies. New York: Oxford, 1992. Shuur, Diane. "The Miracle: Helen Keller." Time. 1999 http://www.time.com (2 Feb. 2000) "The Life of Helen Keller." RNIB. 1999 http://www.rnib.org.uk (28 Jan. 2000) "The Life of Helen Keller: An American Hero." Helen Keller International. 1999 http://www.hki.org (4 Feb. 2000)

Responsible Borrowing Worksheet Essay

Many students borrow federal student loans to pay for college. The goal of this assignment is to help you learn how to borrow responsibly, which may mean that you do not borrow at all or that you borrow only what you truly need. To borrow responsibly, you must understand your options and establish a financial plan for your entire program. With that plan in place, you can then focus on your classes and making connections with instructors and other students. Step 1 Watch the â€Å"Responsible Borrowing (Financial Aid)† video on the orientation website located here: http://www.phoenix.edu/student-orientation.html. Respond to the following questions: What is financial aid? Financial Aid is any grant or scholarship, loan, or paid employment offered to help a student meet his/her college expenses. Such aid is usually provided by various sources such as federal and state agencies, colleges, high schools, foundations, and corporations. How do grants differ from loans? Grants are money you don’t have to repay and are usually based on your financial need while loans are money you borrow that you must pay back, usually with interest costs. The major grants are Cal Grants, federal Pell Grants and some smaller federal grants What effect does class attendance have on funding availability? Students must attend school continuously, with no attendance breaks greater than 14 days, to retain disbursed federal financial aid funds. A leave of absence must be requested and approved if a student requires more than 14 days away from class. Step 2 Navigate to the Personal Finance category of the GEN/127 PhoenixConnect Community. Explore the resources provided and some of the discussions shared by the community members. Respond to the following questions: What did you find about student loan repayment plans? I found out that there are interests rates that cling to the loan and also you should pay close attention to the money you burrow in unsubsidized and subsidized loans because you will have to pay that back and also may sure you keep up with how much your borrowing and the dates that you will have to start repaying, you don’t want them to go into default. Why is having an educational financial plan important? You will need this so you can map out how much needs to be funded for your course and class, its very vital you pay attention to this because you could end up not having enough, thesethings you want to plan out and make sure of so you wont have any bumps or faults along the way. Step 3 Access the Financial Plan at www.phoenix.edu/financialplan. Enter your program and respond to the questions. Explore the information about options for payment, reducing cost, and military students (if applicable). If you have already completed the plan as part of the enrollment process, you can use those results for this step. Based on this plan, what is your estimated monthly payment when you enter repayment? My estimated monthly repayment fee is $56 a month. As a result of completing the plan, what changes can you make to reduce the amount you may borrow? Why? I can check for the cost of the classes so I wont borrow so much, just what I need to pay the cost of each class that way I wont over draw.

Free Essays on Feminist Religion

Women in religion has been a controversial subject for many years. Even though advances have been made to include women, we as women still have a long road ahead of us. Women are still not seen in as many significant positions as men, but the roles of women in the church are gradually changing. Women are even being seen in pastor or reverend positions today. The subject of women in religion goes back even before the Civil War. Women were promoting the cause of equality within the church. They argued for the admission of women in seminaries and into the ministry. Particularly, a woman named Anna Howard Shaw was seen as a great preacher and fought to teach the message of God from the pulpit, though she was turned down many times. Even though she knew even as much as her male counterpart, she was forbidden to have her voice heard. (Carr, p. 10-12.) One significant point in history to women is the Reformation. The Reformation brought about some changes in the church’s way of viewing women. Reformation teachings of the â€Å"priesthood of all believers† made it very important for all Christians to be able to read the bible. Children were then required to go to school so they could learn to read. This included little girls. Because the girls were being taught, the roles of nuns in the church were diminishing. Girls had no need to be nuns in order to be educated, so they simply didn’t become nuns. Women took on a new role. They now could read and understand the bible so they taught their children about their faith. This feminist movement for equality soon died out only to resurface in a later time. (Carr, p. 12-14.) Later in the twentieth century the movement for women regained steam. In the 1960s, women were fighting for bigger roles in the churches such as education, more participation, and decision-making power. Churches still had difficulty with the acceptance of women, even those that allowed the ordination of ... Free Essays on Feminist Religion Free Essays on Feminist Religion Women in religion has been a controversial subject for many years. Even though advances have been made to include women, we as women still have a long road ahead of us. Women are still not seen in as many significant positions as men, but the roles of women in the church are gradually changing. Women are even being seen in pastor or reverend positions today. The subject of women in religion goes back even before the Civil War. Women were promoting the cause of equality within the church. They argued for the admission of women in seminaries and into the ministry. Particularly, a woman named Anna Howard Shaw was seen as a great preacher and fought to teach the message of God from the pulpit, though she was turned down many times. Even though she knew even as much as her male counterpart, she was forbidden to have her voice heard. (Carr, p. 10-12.) One significant point in history to women is the Reformation. The Reformation brought about some changes in the church’s way of viewing women. Reformation teachings of the â€Å"priesthood of all believers† made it very important for all Christians to be able to read the bible. Children were then required to go to school so they could learn to read. This included little girls. Because the girls were being taught, the roles of nuns in the church were diminishing. Girls had no need to be nuns in order to be educated, so they simply didn’t become nuns. Women took on a new role. They now could read and understand the bible so they taught their children about their faith. This feminist movement for equality soon died out only to resurface in a later time. (Carr, p. 12-14.) Later in the twentieth century the movement for women regained steam. In the 1960s, women were fighting for bigger roles in the churches such as education, more participation, and decision-making power. Churches still had difficulty with the acceptance of women, even those that allowed the ordination of ...

Freedom Through Christianity Essays - African Slave Trade

Freedom Through Christianity Essays - African Slave Trade Freedom through Christianity What do people look for in religion? Do they look for guidance, beliefs, reason, or do they look for help? African-Americans have looked for all of these for many years. They found all of these in Christianity. Christians believe in one God who they worship, trust, and look up to. Since Christianity was first intorduced in the early Colonial Period, African-Americans have used their Christian beliefs to fight horrible things that have gone on in America such as slavery and segregation. As African-Americans were captured through the slave trade and brought to the colonies they possessed many different religious beliefs. Many people are extremely ignorant in history and believe that all African-Americans were once united together as a whole in Africa. This was not nearly the case. Africa was made up of many different states with many different people and with many different beliefs. These people were dark skinned, but aren't all white people light skinned. The white man has never agreed on one main language. As the African-Americans were brought to the colonies from Africa, they used Christianity to help bring them together. Some people use song and dance to express their Christian beliefs. This was all started by the slaves. African-American slaves used songs, dances, and often stories to show their feelings about God. These stories were called trickster stories. As African-American slaves became more involved in the Christian faith it gave them something to live and fight for. Instead of doing labor for their white owners, they did their work for themselves and most importantly, they did it for God. Slaves were treated as animals. They were forced to work in the fields, in the house, or on the farms for free. They were beaten, deprived of food and clothing, and even raped. If slaves tried to run away they were captured and beaten. Being beaten meant being stripped of their clothes and whipped severely with a leather strap. Some were whipped up to 300 times. As time passed, African-Americans were beginning to speak English. This helped significantly. Now they could preach and spread their beliefs. As Christianity spread through the country, slaves were beginning to worship the Lord out loud. They began to build churches and have marriages. Having Christian marriages provided a family for the slaves and this gave them a sense of brotherhood. The white man degraded the slaves so much that many had an extremely how self-esteem. Many slaves felt that their duty in life was to be the white man's slave. However, Christianity showed them that they were equal to everyone and this often raised the slaves self-esteem. Through churches and marriages the African-Americans were now creating a community for themselves. Slavery ended and blacks were finally free to some extent. Although they were now free, they would still remain under the white man's foot. This was a huge step for the African-Americans though. I believe that Christianity had a lot to do with the ending of slavery. The blacks already knew that slavery was wrong, and finally enough whites realized, through God that this was wrong and immoral. However, there will still be many whites who are ignorant in the preachings of God and still treat the blacks as though they are slaves. African-Americans will keep their heads high and fight for their freedom through the strength of God. Even though African-Americans were no longer slaves, they still do not have the freedom that everyone in America deserved. Slavery was now gone, but the main issue became segregation. Blacks still did not received the same rights as the whites did. They could not attend the same schools, use white bathroom facilities, eat in the same restaurants, ride on the front of buses, or even drink fro the same water fountains. This went against everything that God said and the blacks knew that. They knew that God created everyone equal and their are some African-Americans who will fight for this. Most blacks were scared to come public and fight for their rights. There was still a lof of violence and hostility toward blacks at this time. Blacks were being hung, beaten, and brutally murdered. This put a lot of fear into the eyes of African-Americans. Some tried

Definition and Evaluation of Holistic Grading

Definition and Evaluation of Holistic Grading Holistic grading is a method of evaluating a composition based on its overall quality. Also known as  global grading, single-impression scoring, and impressionistic grading. Developed by the Educational Testing Service, holistic grading is often used in large-scale assessments, such as college placement tests. Graders are expected to make judgments based on criteria that have been agreed upon before the start of an evaluation session. Contrast with analytic grading. Holistic grading is useful as a time-saving approach, but it does not provide students with detailed feedback. Observations Teachers who practice holistic grading refuse to break down a students essay into separate problems like punctuation and paragraphing, but base their grade on their immediate sense of the whole derived from a deliberately nonanalytical reading.(Peggy Rosenthal, Words and Values: Some Leading Words and Where They Lead Us. Oxford University Press, 1984)Holistic Grading and Peer ReviewIf the speed of grading is more important than detailed feedback, then  holistic grading is  more appropriate; it just means less feedback for the writer. Pairs or small groups can also evaluate one anothers work using this rubric. Called peer review, it gives them practice in evaluation, helps them internalize the criteria, and relieves you of the burden of grading.(Nancy Burkhalter,  Critical Thinking Now: Practical Teaching Methods for Classrooms Around the World.  Rowman Littlefield,  2016)Inductive Holistic Grading[Holistic grading] is relatively quick, efficient, reliable, and fair when ba cked by instructor experience, practice, and familiarity with the student performance range at the institution. In addition, it easily accommodates essays and assignments that demand higher-order thinking and have multiple respectable responses.With inductive holistic grading, which is suitable for small classes, you read quickly through all the responses or papers, rank each above or below the ones you have already read, from best to worst, and then group them for assigning grades. Finally, you write up descriptions of the quality of each group and then give them to students when you return their work. To personalize the feedback, you can add comments to each students sheet or highlight the most applicable parts of the appropriate description.(Linda B. Nilson, Teaching at Its Best: A Research-Based Resource for College Instructors, 3rd ed. Jossey-Bass, 2010) Advantages and Disadvantages of Holistic Grading- An advantage to holistic grading is that graders can evaluate many papers in a short span of time because they do not comment on or correct the students work. Advocates of this method also propose that it makes grading more objective, since students names do not appear on the papers and since the rater may not have had the student in a class . . ..Critics of the method have questioned its validity and reliability, arguing that holistic ratings are swayed by superficial factors such as length and appearance of an essay, that holistic ratings cannot be generalized beyond the group that designed the criteria for judgment, and that the agreed-upon criteria can limit the readers views on the merits of the writing they are evaluating . . ..(Edith Babin and Kimberly Harrison, Contemporary Composition Studies: A Guide to Theorists and Terms. Greenwood Press, 1999)- [H]olistic grading is  probably not the best tactic, even if it seems the ea siest and quickest. Assigning a single score, grade, or judgment leaves the student unsure about both quality and content. One simple approach is to give a composition one grade for content coverage and a separate grade for writing quality.(Robert C. Calfee and Roxanne Greitz Miller, Best Practices in Writing Assessment for Instruction.  Best Practices in Writing Instruction, 2nd ed., edited by  Steve Graham et al. Guilford Press, 2013) Holistic RubricsHolistic rubrics are the quickest way to score papers in any content area, requiring a teacher to read a paper only once. Teachers can develop rubrics by basing them on the content theyve taught and practiced; assess papers based on established criteria agreed upon by students and teachers; and give a single holistic score that indicates the quality level of the writing, ranging from deficient to competent to outstanding.(Vicki Urquhart and Monette McIver, Teaching Writing in the Content Areas. ASCD, 2005)

Economist Skills Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Economist Skills - Case Study Example Entering a supervisory role means that one gives up some of the task orientation and gets involved in the planning aspects of the tasks at hand. Rather than being given the daily tasks to perform, as on the line, the supervisor must deal with the constraints (number of people, amount of time, budget) and the requirements (production quantity, quality). Add to this the human management aspects of the job upward. Whereas the plant manager is a distant figure to the people on the line, not sharing the pressures and difficulties of the job, he is more direct and confrontational with his/her supervisors, as they are the first-line managers responsible for getting things done. Managing upwards for Joe means that he must fit the requirements of the company and his capacities to complete them with the people he has. Like an Army lieutenant climbing over the foxhole, he knows that the ultimate goal is not just the next foxhole, but a broader battle plan that he may or may not choose to communicate with his employees. Joe must manage expectations upward. That means that if upper management is asking him to do something for which he doesn't have the resources (e.g. capital equipment, training of his people, time or expertise), Joe must communicate that clearly with management and come to a mutually-satisfying conclusion. The usual pattern on manufactu... In addition, the supervisor moves from top player to coach: rather than carrying out the tasks himself, he must teach those who must do the actual production. It's said that the best coaches are those who were just average players in their sport. Vince Lombardi played professional football with just average results, but he excelled as a coach. The reason for the difference is that coaches understand how to reach down to the mid-performing line worker and motivate him/her to excel. There are any number of ways that Joe could have failed as a first-line manager: He failed to communicate the needs of upper management to the production team, thus failing to give an adequate picture of what was expected, or He did not act as a buffer, or translator, of upper-management wishes. Sometimes the first-line manager will communicate the tension and insecurity of upper management without giving adequate translation into the tasks that need to be completed. He could have failed to supply enough information to give his team members an insight as to why the decisions on production levels, quality and other factors were being asked of them. His production team members were looking to Joe for leadership, not camaraderie. Joe may have found that the tools he used before (being a nice guy, getting along) are different than those he needs now to succeed (providing direction and feedback). How Might This Have Been Avoided Management clearly failed Joe in two key ways: 1. They should have assessed Joe on his leadership qualities, not his ability to perform his work on the line. 2. They should have provided Joe with the management tools he needed in order to succeed, including training, coaching and feedback. Bibliography Berger, D., n.d., It's All About the People, Plant

Bojangles Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Bojangles - Essay Example Here in this place, his tap lessons were learned and became 'Bojangles'. In this particular place, he learned the ways to earn a living through dancing and entertaining in local beer gardens, worked as bootblack and danced in public passing a hat around. Here in this place, he experienced maturity against life's challenges which gave him the courage to go and explore possibilities. At age 12, he left Richmond and rode a freight train to Washington, DC. Starting his journey of self-sufficiency as race track worker, Robinson took the road in hard work. After the first taste of professional show business gig in The South before the War and enlisting himself during World War I serving as the drum major of the 369th Infantry Regiment, the so-called "Harlem Hellfighters.", Robinson was determined to be a performer. This foot-work driven undaunted by the then racial discrimination managed to catch the limelight of entertainment amidst the world of white racial dominance in New York City. Among his achievements, he became George W. Cooper's foil, became solo performer and became famous for his debut tap stair dance. To become a show headliner, some of his gimmicks planned together with his manager Marty Forkins include setting a world's record in the backwards 75-yard dash (in 8.2 seconds) beating athletes and won sports world attention. He was offered Broadway shows and was able to enrapture the audience with his performance. Such kind of performance even made its way to New York's 1939 World's Fair. His entertainment skills also provided him the means to invade film industry with the movie phenomenon Shirley Temple. Having grown in poor conditions but managed to live decently, Robinson was able to earn his living using his talents of entertainment, a skill he learned in his childhood. Having known poverty, he was kind hearted and had lived generously both in spending, gambling and in charity works. He was known to donate in kind and in deeds to several organizations and foundations and also in Richmond. His gambling addiction and unsystematic charity works were said to drain his wealth such that he died poor despite of his million dollars earnings during his more than fifty-year show business career. His interests in this lavish spending and gambling episodes can be traced back to the time when he was just a boy earning his penny and spending his time in corner streets. Though a compulsive gambler, he did not drink. Robinson's tasteful dressing was also one of the most notable characteristic. In his sixties, Robinson was far from a kid who tap danced to earn pennies; he had achieved wealth and fame in a racist society. Instead of opting for retirement he continued to perform. He lived a principle of hardwork in his performances, "what success I achieved in the theater is due to the fact that I have always worked just as hard when there were ten people in the house as when there were thousands. Just as hard in Springfield, Illinois, as on Broadway" to quote him. The circumstance in which he was forced into retirement even culminates in his major benefit for the American Heart Association, held at the Copacabana, in New York City, a month before his seventieth birthday. After doing extra, more vigorous steps than the standard routine, he suffered a massive heart attack backstage.

ASSIGNMENT IN CHEMISTRY Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

ASSIGNMENT IN CHEMISTRY - Essay Example At that time, the equilibrium mixture was quickly cooled in an ice bath and analyzed where the amount of A remaining was found to be 0.04 moles. b. What was the purpose of the ice bath The ice bath is used to lower the temperature of the mixture. Alcohols and esters are volatile substances and higher temperature will volatilize the said substances and might lead to analytical errors. a. the pressure is increased - According to Le Chatelier, the position of equilibrium will move in such a way as to counteract the change in pressure. That means that the position of equilibrium will move so that the pressure is reduced again. Pressure is caused by gas molecules hitting the sides of their container. The more molecules you have in the container, the higher the pressure will be. The system can reduce the pressure by reacting in such a way as to produce fewer molecules. In this case, there is 1 molecule on the left-hand side of the equation, and 2 on the right. Increasing the pressure on a gas reaction shifts the position of equilibrium towards the side with fewer molecules. In this case towards the reverse reaction. b. the temperature is increased - According to Le Chatelier, the position of equilibrium will move in such a way as to counteract the change. ... Alcohols and esters are volatile substances and higher temperature will volatilize the said substances and might lead to analytical errors. c. Give an expression for the equilibrium constant for the reaction and calculate a numerical value from the data provided. K = [CH3COOCH3] [H2O] / [CH3COOH] [CH3OH] = [.04 moles x 80] [.04 moles x 20] / [.04 moles 64] [.04 moles x 36] = [3.2] [0.8] / [2.56] [1.44] = 0.6944 d. Why is the volume not given (or not important in this instance) Volume is not given because it will not make any significant difference in the concentration of the substances present. 3. When Nitrogen (1 mole) and Hydrogen (3 moles) react at constant temperature at a pressure of 5 x 10 ^6 Pa, the equilibrium mixture was found to contain 0.6 moles of ammonia. a. Calculate mole fractions of all species involved at equilibrium. N2 + 3H2 2 NH3 Mole fraction of N2 = 1- .06 moles = 0.94 / 5.74 = 0.1638 Mole fraction of H2 = 3 (1-.06 moles) = 3.6 / 5.74 = 0.6272 Mole fraction of NH3 = 2 (0.6) = 1.2 / 5.74 = 0.2090 b. Calculate partial pressure of all species involved at equilibrium. Pressure = 5 x 10^6 Pa PN2 = 0.94 RT/V PH2 = 3.6 RT/V PNH3 = 1.2 RT/V c. Calculate Kp = [pNH3]^2 / [pN2] [pH2]^3 4. Gaseous phosphorous(V) Chloride dissociates reversibly as shown below : PCl5 (g) PCl3 (g) + Cl2 (g) H = +ve Use Le Chatelier's Principle to state and explain the effect on the position of the equilibrium when: a. the pressure is increased - According to Le Chatelier, the position of equilibrium will move in such a way as to counteract the change in pressure. That means that the position of equilibrium will move so that the pressure is reduced again. Pressure

Tyco Company - Process of Communicating Change to Its Staff Essay

Tyco Company - Process of Communicating Change to Its Staff - Essay Example Applying this concept to Tyco’s case, the turnaround team have used Gerard and Teurf’s transformation skills to overcome the frustrations of employees through suspending judgment on those who clearly erred by never openly commenting on what happened; showing determination to change by replacing the members of the board; getting away with sophisticated images of grandeur (moving the Tyco office); and instilling a new culture of adherence to ethical standards, accountability and good corporate citizenship. 2. Tyco used vignettes to communicate changes in ethical behaviour. Write a vignette that could be used by Tyco to assist in overcoming the cultural change barriers that companies like Tyco faced. What international issues might need to be taken into account in writing these vignettes? Possible vignettes that Tyco could have used to assist in overcoming the cultural change barriers that they faced at the time are: â€Å"Transparency is the best policy† or â€Å"Tyco means business: out with conspiracy and engaging in a fraudulent mess.† In writing these vignettes, the message should be clear and should be understood in all cultures where they do business with. The universal nature of adherence to ethical standards through the promotion of transparency in governance must be imminent. Using Ford and Ford’s four types of change conversations, Tyco would go through the process of communicating change to its staff through: (1) initiative conversations, where the need to establish change would be promoted through assertion and declaration that there is a need to reinvent its credibility and integrity; (2) conversations for understanding to encourage personnel to appreciate the changes being proposed to be implemented through vignettes and by affirming reading the new code of ethical conduct; (3) conversations for performance where clear and accurate actions for change are seen and indicate the determination of top management that change is crucial to regaining trust and confidence in the public, and through the use of middle management who cascaded and localized the proposed changes; and (4) conversations for closure where the change garnered a reward indicating that Tyco was one of the most dramatically improved organizations. â€Å"The time of concealment, conspiracy and fraud are over. Just like a ship that has been devastated by a tsunami, now is the time for transformation, for a complete turnaround.  Ã‚  

Parties and Democracy in the Eastern European Countries Essay

Parties and Democracy in the Eastern European Countries - Essay Example Parties help fix the newly established democratic governments in a broader community and influence their stability among the numerous processes of quick social and industrial change. Valuable constitutions and the various processes implicated in the rule of law are reinforced by the possibilities parties put forward for the progress of a more active citizenry and the appearance of a strong democratic political way of life. "There are also strong reasons to believe such conditions are conducive to stable processes of economic development and the formation of effective market economies" (ibid, p.2). The concentration on electoral activity and the methods parties use to reach administration office are particularly important. To the extent of post-communist eastern Europe, it can be stated that involvement in competitive elections is a foremost attribute of party identity development and the advancement of such organizations. Party competition is an important characteristic of the contemporary governments that differentiates them from the single party totalitarianism of the communist era and offers at the present moment a real focus of attention. The single-party government that existed within the Soviet dictatorship, and afterwards reached other parts of Europe and the world, had nothing in common with the experience of the democratic competitive party regime. Modern Eastern Europe contains most of the post-communist countries and the main part of former the Soviet Union. Lewis gives the following classification of eastern European countries: "east-central Europe: Hungary, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and the Czech Republic; the Baltic states: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania; the Balkans: Romania, Bulgaria, Albania and the most of the former Yugoslavia (Bosnia, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro and Serbia) former Soviet republics: Belarus, Moldova and Ukraine" (ibid, p.5). 1989 was an important year both for the states of eastern Europe and the growth of a democratic Europe in general. Its most outstanding image can be seen in opening wide of the strongly protected gates set in the Berlin Wall and the enthusiasm with which the inhabitants of Berlin set about its destruction, but consequently it was a process of creation that would do most to resolve how long and in which form this recently received liberty would exist. This probably influenced Velvet revolution in the Baltic states with final fall of the Soviet empire. The main part of the process was the construction of new political organizations and the establishment of a variety of parties competent in expressing the viewpoints and objectives of contemporary population. On the other hand, there was a serious problem faced by the number of post-communist countries - the lack of experience of liberal democracy and the comparative limitation of party development after the countries had gained independ ence. The building of civil society as the main focus of political interest has succeeded during the recent years, since general civil liberties, gained by people, have influenced their outlook and political viewpoints. This is the main characteristic of 'subunits, capable of opposing and countervailing the state' (Gellner, 1991, p.500).